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FARM
SHOP WOEK
Class
Book
Copyright }I°_
COPyRFGHT DEPOSn>
FARM SHOP WORK
PRACTICAL MANUAL TRAINING
BY 1^
GEORGE Mf BRACE
DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA
AND
D. D. MAYNE
PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND PROFESSOR
OF AGRICULTURAL PEDAGOGICS, UNIVERSITY
OF MINNESOTA
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
C. A. PROSSER
SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
31
Copyright, 1915, by GEORGE M. BRACE and D. D. MAYNE
FARM SHOP WORK E. P. I
JUN-5i9l5
^OIA4 06!60
INTRODUCTION
By C. a. Prosser
Secretary of the National Society for the Promotion OF Industrial Education
This book is written primarily for pupils taking agriculture in elementary and secondary schools, and for pupils in the practical arts work of schools in rural communities ; but it also has suggestions of great merit for farmers and others who have to deal in any way with the varied repair and construction problems of farm and village life.
Not until the rural schools realize that their manual training and shop work must be entirel}^ different from that of the city schools will they serve properly the vocational needs of the children who are to spend their •lives on the farm or in the village.
The aim of the practical arts courses in agricultural communities should be to give the boy at least an elementary experience in every form of manual work required to make an independent and successful farmer on his home acres. Such training will make the farm more attractive. It will also equip the farmer for more successful work in agriculture, both because he is pre- pared to meet the everyday demands of his calling and because he is saved the time and expense of relying on the village mechanic for much that the school should prepare him to do.
/^_^ i^c:/0/7
iv INTRODUCTION
In most of our thinking to-day on the subject of manual training or practical arts in the rural schools, we have stopped with the idea of woodwork. Too often this woodwork is taught with little reference to its connection with the home life and agricultural career of the boy. The courses and methods have been borrowed all too frequently from the work of the city schools.
The farm boy and man must work in wood : in the making of fences, in the repair of tools and machinery, and in the repair and construction of farm implements, conveniences, and buildings. It is far more important that he should know how to deal with wood in these things than that he should be highly skilled in the making of mission furniture. It is training in the work of the ordinary rough carpenter rather than in that of the finished furniture maker that will be most beneficial to the farmer. He needs to know how to handle all the ordinary tools of the carpenter and how to put wood together. His practice should be on farm things and should result in a usable output of farm things.
An outfit of ordinary farm implements of the simplest kind can be constructed for the use of the school. Pu- pils should be encouraged to bring from home articles that need to be repaired. They should also be en- couraged to set up a workshop on the farm and to do more extensive and ambitious repair and construction jobs, as supplementary to the school instruction. It goes without saying that successful results can only be secured when the teacher in charge of this training is not only able to sense the demands of the farm home
INTRODUCTION v
by having actually experienced them, but is also able intelligently to direct the efforts of the boy.
The farmer must know how to shape iron for uses in all sorts of things. The school should be equipped with a small forge, and the boy be trained in the forg- ing and tempering of iron, the cutting and soldering of sheet metal. He should be trained to think his problem through by making at least rough diagrams of his plans in dealing with material of all kinds.
He should be able to meet successfully emergency repairs on harness and belting. This means that the school should give him an elementary experience in the cutting, shaping, fitting, and sewing of leather, which can only result from training in actual repair problems.
The use of cement on the farm is increasing enor- mously. The ordinary farmer can now with some in- struction use it successfully for most of the purposes for which it is employed in the country home. Hence it follows that the school should give the boy instruction in such things as the making of molds for cement work, the laying of foundations and the construction of posts, floors, and walks.
One of the most difficult questions confronting the work in industrial education to-day is the kind of in- dustrial training which should be offered in villages and small towns. The diversified character of its in- dustrial hfe, sometimes the entire absence of manufac- turing, together with the certainty that only a small number of persons would care to be, or should be, trained for any one occupation, make it impossible for these small communities to undertake any program of industrial education which aims to give specific
vi INTRODUCTION
preparation for any one industry or trade. This has, in many cases, prevented such places from under- taking any work whatever of this character.
The solution of the problem in my opinion lies in a course in the practical arts in the upper grades and in the high school, which will serve a double aim. It will give the village boy an experience in manual work from which he will derive all the customary values, and which will fit him to be a ''jack of all trades," if he so elects. At the same time it will give the boy from the farm a training in a range of activities which will fit him to meet, as a "jack of all trades," the ordinary everyday demands of farm life.
This book has been written from such points of view as the foregoing, and will find its largest field of useful- ness as a text or reference book in the hands of pupils of rural elementary and secondary schools. It offers a course of instruction in farm shop work which includes working the four fundamental materials used on the farm — wood, metal, leather, and cement. All the jobs under- taken by the pupil deal in a very practical way with the repair or construction of things which are used in the actual work of the farm. For example, the woodwork- ing covers instruction in the making of the bench hook, level square, sawbuck, porch chair, clothesrack, clothes- tree, seed testing box, sheep feeding trough, trap nest, chicken feed box, wagon-jack, hammer handle, plank drag for roads, sewing horse, trussed ladder, combina- tion ladder, farmer's level, corn rack, cattle rack, hog cot, wagon box, workbench, tool chest.
The treatment of each task which the pupil is to undertake is excellent from the standpoint of good
INTRODUCTION vii
teaching. Throughout the language is simple and the explanations and directions clear. Each new article to be made is described and its use explained at the outset. Numerous illustrations illuminate the text.
From the outset, the pupil is engaged in the making of usable things. The assignment of work is by separate jobs or projects to individual pupils. The aim is to lead him to an understanding through prac- tice rather than through either theory alone or through unapplied exercises. The realness and usefulness of the work performed will undoubtedly appeal to the interest of both the bo}^ and his parent. The pupil is led gradually to rely more and more upon the text and less upon the teacher, which promotes self-help, an indispensable asset to the worker on the farm and in the farm shop. The book offers on every page ex- cellent suggestions to the boy who has unoccupied time on his hands and makes possible school credit for shop work done at home. Practice and thinking about the practice, doing useful things while at the same time the work is directed and interpreted — this is the cardinal principle on which the treatment of practi- cal arts work has been based throughout.
The farmer will find the book a mine of information as to all such things as the care and use of shop tools, the repair and construction of farm implements, devices and buildings of all kinds. School boys will have in it an admirable guide in undertaking to make either at home or at school useful things which have a definite and helpful place in country, village, and town life. It should give them a genuine interest in the repair and construction of new as well as familiar things and make
viii INTRODUCTION
them self-reliant workers relieved from dependence on the specialist for much of the ordinary mechanical work of the country district.
The book carries a special message also to the teacher who is in any way engaged in the teaching of manual training, practical arts, or shop work in the rural, consohdated, or agricultural high school. Throughout, the vocational opportunities of practical arts work in its application to agricultural life are emphasized. Teachers are too often singularly lacking in a concep- tion of the purpose and possibilities of farm shop work as it has been taught in the schools. When they have been trained in manual training classes deahng almost entirely with the problems of the work in cities or with more or less traditional courses, they find it difficult to adjust their courses and methods to meet rural condi- tions and requirements. They need, as all of us as teach- ers do, to have their work interpreted in terms of its use in the fives of their students, as the authors have done.
Even the unskilled teacher of the country school en- tirely without experience in handfing the matter, will find in the book a wealth of suggestions as to what country boys might do, and how they can be helped to do it.
The authors have brought to their task a long, varied, and intimate experience in deafing with the farm and school problems of the great agricultural state of Minnesota. They have sensed a real need of the rural schools and have offered what in my opinion is the only sound basis for the solution of *'prevoca- jtional," "practical arts," "manual training," or "in- dustrial training" for the children of our small towns and rural districts.
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to provide a series of projects in woodworking, blacksmithing, cement and concrete work, and harness mending. These exercises will not only furnish valuable training in the practical arts, but will also result in the making of many things that are of great use on the farm.
In case the time devoted to industrial work is too short for the class to do all the regular exercises pro- vided in this book, the teacher should select those that involve the uses of the most common tools and the description of the most important processes. If more time is allotted to industrial work than is necessary for the regular exercises, the supplementary projects may be undertaken. The making of furniture should not be commenced until the pupil has mastered the woodworking tools.
The pupil should be required to make in pencil a complete working drawing with full-size details of the project he is about to make. Plans for farm buildings should be required as supplementary work in drawing. The teacher should standardize his work by requiring a definite procedure to be followed in tool operations. After a standard of manipulation has been adopted, the work of the class should be held to that standard.
The authors are indebted to C. G. Schulz, Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Minnesota, to A. V.
X PREFACE
Storm, Professor of Agricultural Education, University of Minnesota, and to many teachers of manual training in the rural communities of Minnesota for their help- ful suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript. Credit for the exercises given under the subject of Blacksmithing is due Mr. A. D. Johnston, Instructor in Forging, Agricultural College of Minnesota. Thanks are due the several publications which have granted permission to use the designs accredited to them in the text.
CONTENTS
WOODWORKING
LESSON ^'^'^'^
I. Bench Hook i
II. Level Square lo
III. Sawbuck 20
IV. Folding Sawbuck 27
V. Porch Chair 3i
VI. Clothes Rack 36
VII. Clothes Tree 39
VIII. Seed Testing Box 44
IX. Sheep-feeding Trough 49
X. Chicken Feed Box 56
XI. Trap Nest 61
XII. Wagon Jack 66
XIII. Hammer Handle 71
XIV. Plank Drag for Roads 75
XV. Sewing Horse 79
XVI. Trussed Ladder 85
XVII. Combination Ladder 89
XVIII. Farmer's Level 96
XIX. Leveling Rod 105
XX. Three Horse Evener 109
XXI. Farm Gate ■ . .113
XXII. Corn Rack ^ . .118
XXIII. Cattle Rack 122
XXIV. Hog Cot 127
XXV. Wagon Box . . . ' i33
XXVI. Work Bench 138
XXVII. Tool Chest 146
XXVIII. Timber IS9
XXIX. Woodworking Tools ....... 165
xi
Xll
CONTENTS
LESSON
XXX. Uses of the Steel Square
XXXI. Glue in Woodworking
XXXII. Filing Saws and Grinding Edge Tools
177 185 189
BLACKSMITHING
XXXIII. The Forge and Anvil 198
XXXIV. Staple 201
XXXV. Gate Hook 204
XXXVI. Bolt 207
XXXVII. Chain and Hook 210
XXXVIII. Swivel 217
XXXIX. Tongs 221
XL. Wrench . 224
XLI. Harness Hook 227
XLII. Irons for Wagon Jack 229
XLIII. Irons for Three-horse Evener .... 230
XLIV. Irons for Plank Drag 234
XLV. Irons for Combination Ladder 235
XLVI. Iron for Leveling Rod 237
XLVII. Irons for Farm Gate 238
XLVIII. Irons for Cattle Rack and Corn Rack . . . 239
XLIX. Irons for Wagon Box 240
L. Tool Steel • . . . . 242
CEMENT AND CONCRETE WORK
LI. Cement and Concrete 246
LII. Sidewalks and Floors 252
LIII. Foundation Walls and Steps 256
LIV. Concrete Troughs . . . . . . 259
LV. Fence Posts » 264
LEATHER WORK
LVI. Harness Mending 269
SUGGESTIONS FOR ADDITIONAL WORK .... 275
INDEX . 287
WOODWORKING
LESSON I
BENCH HOOK
Stock
I pc. white pine J''X4l''x8i'' 4 screws ij'', No. 8, F. H. B. I pc. white pine |"Xif"X4i'' (F. H. B.=flat head, bright) I pc. white pinef Xif'X4''
Tools
|
Rule Marking gauge |
Plane |
|
Try-square Saw |
Brace and bit |
|
Screw driver |
|
|
Operations |
|
|
I. Laying out. |
|
|
2. Surfacing one side. |
|
|
3. Planing one edge. |
|
|
4. Squaring one end. |
|
|
5. Laying out length, width. |
thickness. |
6. Planing to thickness.
7. Sawing to length.
8. Planing to length.
9. Sawing to width.
10. Planing to width.
11. Making blocks.
12. Laying out screw holes.
13. Boring screw holes.
14. Assembling.
In explaining this first exercise, it is assumed that
WOODWORKING
the pupil knows nothing about the operations. Even though he has performed some of them many times before, it will be to his advantage to follow directions as carefully as though it were the first time he ever
±
/'
Fig, I. — Working Drawing of Bench Hook.
MH
e
held tools in his hands. Follow directions carefully.
Do not hurry.
I. Lay out the dimensions on a piece of white pine
board. Some allowance must be made for squaring up,
so the pieces should be laid out a little larger than the finished dimen- sions. (Laying out means marking the lines that represent the shape and sizes of the various pieces which, when cut out and put together, or as- sembled, make the exer- cise.) The first opera- tion in laying out is to select an end nearly square with one edge of the board. If neither end is square, square a
•^1
I*/'
|
T \ 1 |
\-I
ii^
Fig. 2. — Working Drawing of Bench Hook. Top and Side Views,
BENCH HOOK
line across one end with a try-square and saw on this hne.
With the rule measure off S^" from this end. In measuring with a rule, do not lay it flat down on the board ; stand it on edge so that the marks on the rule meet the surface of the board. In this way the knife blade can touch the mark on the rule and the wood at the same time. (See Fig. 3.) If this method is followed al- ways, there will be no excuse for making mis- takes in measurements : if the rule is laid flat, p^^ ^ the measurements will
likely be inaccurate. When it is necessary to make more than one measurement, if the rule is not raised from the work, the chance of making mistakes is there- by lessened. If the board is too wide, the width should be meas- ured also.
With the try-square on the 8J'' mark, line across the board. If the board is wider than the length of the blade of the try-square, use a car- penter's steel square, or extend the length of the blade as shown in Fig. 4, by placing a rule on
Position of Rule in Measuring.
Fig. 4. — Squaring across a Wide Board.
WOODWORKING
the board against the blade of the try-square, and Uning across with this. In using the try- square place the knife blade on the point ; move the blade of the
Fig. 5. — Placing THE Knife Blade ON Point. try-Square Up tO the
knife blade and Kne across. (Figs. 5 and 6.)
2. Surfacing one side. — Select a surface that is flat
and without wind ; with
this surface up, lay the
board on the bench
with one end against
the bench stop, which is
some kind of a wooden
or iron plug projecting
from one end of the
bench ; and with the
plane, plane the surface smooth and flat. Test the sur- face across the grain and with the grain by the try-square
as in Fig. 7. (Wind is a twisting curve or warp in some boards.)
3. Planing one edge, —r When one surface is planed smooth and true, two witness marks (see Fig. 7) are
Fig. 7. — Testing Surface of Board. made On this SUr-
FiG. 6. — Using the Try-square.
BENCH HOOK
5
face near one edge ; this edge is next to be trued up square with the surface. Place the board in the vise
Fig. 8. — Using Try-square to Test a Square Corner.
and plane until the edge is square with the surface just finished. Its truth can be tested by the try- square. (See Fig. 8.) When true, two more witness marks are drawn on the edge end- ing at the surface.
4. Squaring one end. — In squaring up one end, place the board up- right in the vise with the finished edge next to the body ; when planing across the grain, to prevent the blade from splintering off pieces from the farther
FARM SHOP WORK — 2
Fig. q. — One Method of Preventing Splintering in Using Plane.
6 WOODWORKING
edge, either place a block of waste material back of the farther edge and on a level with the end of the board, B, Fig. 9, and plane across this, allowing the splinters to come from the waste material ; or, if there is enough waste material in the board, chisel off one corner on
the edge farthest from the body. (See Fig. lo.) The end must be made square with the finished edge, also with the finished surface.
5. Laying out length, width, thickness. — When one end is
Fig. 10. — Another Method of Preventing SCJUarecl up, lay OUt Splintering in Using Plane. ^J^g length by measur-
ing 8'' from the squared end and square across with a knife and try-square, resting the beam against the finished edge.
Lay out the width with the marking gauge ; set the guide of the gauge at the 4'' mark on the beam and, with the guide resting against the finished edge, gauge the entire length of the board. The thickness is laid out with the marking gauge set at f . The proper way to set the guide of the marking gauge is to measure with the rule the distance required from the guide to the spur, as shown in Fig. 11. In holding the gauge for lining. Fig. 12 shows how the tool is grasped in the hand with the thumb in front of the spur and the first finger over the guide. Tip the beam so the spur just touches the wood. In laying out the thickness of the board, measure off f '', and with the guide resting against
BENCH HOOK
Fig. II. — Setting the Guide of the Marking Gauge.
the finished surface gauge around on all four edges. The
gauge should be used in laying out the width. Where
large measurements
are required, it is
very difficult to hold
the gauge so it will
score accurately;
and, besides, the
beam is not long
enough for very large
measurements.
6. Planing to thick- ness. — When the thickness has been gauged, the board should be planed to this thickness. The same care that was used on the other sides should be exercised in planing this surface.
7. Sawing to length. — When this work is done, the
piece should be sawed to length, sawing just outside the knife mark made in laying out the length. It is necessary to leave a little wood outside the line so it will be possible to plane
the end down smooth and square without making the board too short.
8. Planing to length. — The end should be planed after it is sawed and the same precautions should be observed as were indicated in Operation 4.
Using the Marking Gauge.
8 WOODWORKING
9. Sawing to width. — The next operation is to saw to width, sawing just outside the Hne.
10. Planing to width. — The operation of planing to width must be carefully done in order to get the edge square with the surface, and at the same time not to plane below the line.
11. Making blocks. — The next operation is laying out the two blocks, one to be used on the upper side and one on the lower side of the board. The method of laying out, sawing, and planing these pieces is the same as that used in finishing the board, so the directions will not be repeated here.
12. Laying out screw holes. — After the two blocks are finished, the screw holes must be located. With the
ruler or try-square, measure in from each end |'' and mark;
then set the gauge at J'' and Fig. 13. — Location of Screw line across these marks, gauging ^^^^' from the opposite edges at A
and B, Fig. 13.
13. Boring screw holes. — The next operation is boring the holes. Select a gimlet bit the same size as the screws and bore through the pieces at the places marked.
In boring, place the screw point on the mark and hold the brace so that the bit is perpendicular, then with the left hand on the knob and holding the sweep with the right hand, place the forehead on the left hand, pressing down so as to make the bit cut.
14. Assembling. — The last operation is assembUng ; this is putting together the various pieces, completing the project. Place the shorter piece on one end, as in Fig. 14, and clamp it in the vise with one edge flush.
k//H
BENCH HOOK 9
or even, with one end of the board, and one end flush with the left-hand edge of the board. Put the screws in and screw them down with a screw driver until the head is flush with the surface of the wood. Turn the board over and fasten the other piece on the opposite side of the other
end, with one edge flush with FiGril- Bench Hook Assembled.
the end of the board.
If the work has been done accurately, the pieces will fit nicely, and when placed in position will be square with the edges of the board, and the longer piece will just reach from edge to edge of the board. No holes are needed in the board for the screws, as the wood is soft white pine ; but if it were to be made of hard wood, it would be necessary to bore holes in the board, a trifle smaller than the screws, and the holes in the pieces should be countersunk. (Countersinking is ream- ing out the edge of the bored hole to fit the head of a wood screw.)
QUESTIONS
1. Why does the gauge mark more easily when held at an angle than when held vertical ?
2. Why should the point of the gauge be sharpened like a knife point rather than like a round point ?
3. Why do you bore holes through the small pieces and not into the board ?
4. Why are the screws placed on opposite edges of the small pieces instead of on the same edge ?
LESSON II
LEVEL SQUARE
Stock
I pc. white pine f' X 2Y' X 25'' Brads f" Glue I pc. white pine I" X 2{'' X 13''
Tools
Rule Marking gauge Plane
Try-square Saw Chisel
Operations
1. Laying out.
2. Surfacing one side.
3. Planing one edge.
4. Squaring one end.
5. Laying out length and width and thickness.
6. Planing to thickness.
7. Sawing to length.
8. Planing to length.
9. Sawing to width.
10. Planing to width.
11. Laying out halved joint.
12. Sawing halved joint.
13. Trimming halved joint.
14. Gluing.
15. Squaring up corners.
16. Laying out scale for plumb bob.
LEVEL SQUARE
II
Requirements. — The pieces are to be of the exact length, width, and thickness called for in the drawing. The two ends halved are to be fitted together so the surfaces are flush with each other, and the outside and inside corners square.
When two pieces of wood of equal thickness are to be fitted together so that the surfaces are flush, the halved joint is commonly used. In making this joint, one half of the thickness is cut out of each of the pieces for a distance equal to the width of the pieces.
There are two methods com- monly used ; in one, the joint is laid out according to measure- ments, and in the other, the laying out is done by super- imposing, which is laying one piece on the other and marking , the width by hning along the ^ { edges. The latter method is not
so accurate, because when the ^'^- 15. -Working Drawing
OF Level Square.
pieces are cut along the Imes
marked out, the cut is too large, and the two parts make a poor fit. In order to prevent this, it is neces- sary to cut inside the lines with the saw and trim with the chisel. This makes a " cut and try " method, which is not recommended. If the work is laid out accurately, if all measurements are exact, and if the cuts are on the Hnes, the pieces will fit together with the pressure of the hands, requiring no forcing, neither will they be so loose as to fall apart.
12
WOODWORKING
^4
i-io. First Ten Operations. — Lay out the pieces f " X X 2^" and \" X 2\" X \^" so as to leave enough stock for planing, and follow in order the directions for the first ten operations given in Lesson L
II. Laying out halved joint. — In laying out the halved joint, lay oflF 2" from one end and square across one surface and two edges. Then set the gauge at f " and gauge across the end and along both edges to the knife lines.
In gauging, be careful to keep the guide against the part to be removed in one piece and against the part
remaining in the other piece.
It is necessary to take great care in making any joint, both in lay- ing out and in cutting. 12. Sawing halved joint. — If the pupil feels confident that he can do careful and accurate work with the saw, he may follow the direc- tions given under a. If not quite sure, it will be wise to follow the directions given under h.
a. Hold the piece perpendicular in the vise, as in Fig. 16. Hold the thumb nail of the left hand in the groove made by the marking gauge and set the teeth of the rip saw so that they will just touch the thumb nail, and so will split the line.
Saw very carefully down to the line squared across
Fig. 16.
First Cut in Making Halved Joint.
LEVEL SQUARE
13
Fig, 17.-
•Second Cut in Making Halved Joint.
the edge. In this operation watch the back of the piece as carefully as the front.
Place the piece on the bench hook, and with the cross- cut saw split the line squared across the surface, making the shoulder down to the saw cut already made. Be sure that the saw cut, or kerf, is alwaj^s made in the material to be removed. (Fig. 17.)
If these sawing oper- ations have been made carefully and accu- rately, the two pieces will fit together without any further trimming and fitting.
b. This operation is to be recommended unless the pupil is certain that he can do very accurate work in sawing. It is expected that the pupil, after a little practice, will be able to saw all joints where sawing is possible.
The advantages of the sawed joints are that glue holds the parts together better, and time and labor are saved in the extra operations. The work should be held just the same as in 12, a, but instead of splitting the lines, the saw should be held at such a distance from the lines that the teeth just miss touching it.
13. Trimming halved joint. — Remove with the chisel the stock left between the kerf and the line. Hold the piece on the bench hook or in the vise and with an inch chisel cut down through the scored line, taking
H
WOODWORKING
Fig. i8. — Testing Squareness of Shoulder.
care not to cut off the line. Test the squareness of the line with the try-square, as in Fig. i8. If this shoulder is not exactly square, it will be impossible to fit the
two arms together so that they will be square. Do not use a narrow chisel, for it is more difficult to chisel a straight line with it than with a wide one.
After the shoulder
is chiseled square,
place the piece in the vise, and chisel the inside of the
tongue down to the line. (See Fig. 19.) Square up this
surface to see that it is flat in all directions.
If the grain of the wood is crooked so that it will split down below the line if chiseled in this way, then use the following method.
Place the piece edge- wise against a waste piece, and put both of them in the vise so that the piece will lie horizontally, and chisel across the grain of the wood, as in Fig. 20, down to the line.
14. Gluing. — Hold the two pieces of the halved joint in the vise and test both inside and outside angles with the try-square. In gluing this joint, rub the glue on to
Fig. 19. — Chiseling Inside of Tongue.
LEVEL SQUARE
15
Fig. 20. — Chiseling across the Grain.
the surface of one piece, and on the shoulders of both pieces. In forcing the pieces together, be sure to force the edges up against the two shoulders ; then fasten securely with the f brads, leaving enough of the heads projecting so that the brads may be pulled out again after the glue has set. If hot glue is used, it will set in a few hours ; but if cold fish glue is used, it will require 24 hours to set.
15. Squaring up corners. — When the glue is set, re- move the brads and trim off the surplus glue with a chisel, taking care not to cut the wood. Test the squareness of the corners and the flatness of the sur- faces with the try-square.
Take off a thin shaving with the plane to true up and make a neat appearance. Drive the brads back in place and clinch them.
16. Laying out scale for plumb bob. — Drive a brad in the free end of the longer arm of the square, and attach to this a fine silk thread as long as the arm ; split a buckshot or BB shot and attach to the thread at a point so near the corner just clear the bench top when placed as
Fig. 21. — Plumb Line and Bob.
that it wi] in Fig. 21.
In laying out the scale for the plumb bob, select a surface that is perfectly level by a spirit level, and standing the square on this make a mark under the
i6 WOODWORKING
thread. A spirit level is a small straight piece of wood or iron in one edge of which is placed a glass tube containing alcohol or spirits, and this is used in deter- mining horizontal surfaces. When a second tube is
placed across one end, it can be used in determining vertical sur- faces also. If no level surface can be found, stand it on a sur- J I face that is slanted sufficiently
""rr^^^^S^r-. to allow the thread to incline
considerably towards one side
Fig. 22. — Laying Out Scale i mark under the thrpad •
FOR Plumb Bob. First Step. ^"^ marK Unuer tne tnteaO ,
then reverse the position of the shorter arm so the thread inclines the same distance in the opposite direction, and mark again. (Figs. 22 and 23.)
A point halfway between these two marks is the place at which the thread will be when the lower arm is level and the upright arm is plumb. To complete the scale several marks can be made equidistant from the center line.
Use of the chisel. — In using a ,^-_jzzi::^--|J chisel, never place either hand in y—^-*— --~~~^~^^ 1
front of the cutting edge, as a sUp fjg. 23.— Laying Out of the tool may cause a serious Scale for Plumb Bob. . -ri 1 • 1 11 Second Step.
accident, i he chisel must be kept very sharp ; the method of sharpening will be given later. The action of the chisel in entering the wood is like that of a wedge, and unless the wood on one side gives way to the pressure, the fibers on each side will be forced back and crushed as in ^, Fig. 24. If
LEVEL SQUARE
17
there is room for a shaving to be pushed to one side, as at B, then the fibers back of the chisel will bear the pressure without being crushed. Therefore, when it is necessary to take a heavy cut and to use the mallet, do not place the chisel on
the line, for it will force Fig. 24. — Action of Chisel in Entering 1 111 Wood.
the wood back over
the line and make the work inaccurate ; leave enough wood in front of the line so that a light paring cut can
be made, trimming down to the line. In horizontal paring, the work should be placed in the vise so that the two hands are free to handle the tool.
Place a piece of waste material back of the piece to be pared, and take a Hght cut with the bevel or slanting surface of the tool up. If the waste piece were not placed there, the pressure of the chisel would splin- ter a piece off the farther
Fig. 25, — Chiseling from Both Sides , ... , ,
toward the Middle. edge, SpOlimg gOOd WOrk.
i8
WOODWORKING
Fig. .26.-
•A Shearing Cut with a Chisel.
Another method that does not require a piece of waste material back of the chisel is to cut partly through
from one side, then re- verse the block and finish from the other side. (See Fig. 25.)
In taking the finishing cuts, turn the chisel a little to one side, giving a shearing cut, which in- sures a smooth surface, and also requires less force in pushing the tool. (See Fig. 26.) A shear- ing cut is made by mov- ing the chisel to one side while pushing it into the wood. In cutting across the end grain, it is almost necessary to use this shearing cut unless a mallet is used. Do not attempt a heavy cut on joint work, but rather sev- eral light cuts.
QUESTIONS
1. Why is it necessary to gauge from opposite sides of the two pieces when gauging the thickness for the halved joint ?
2. Why is a halved joint made with the saw better than one made with the saw and chisel .''
3. When about to trim the halved joint with a chisel, how will you determine whether the grain is crooked ?
4. Why is it necessary to place a piece of waste material back of the piece when chiseling across the grain ?
5. Why do you use a wide chisel instead of a narrow one in trimming the shoulder of the joint ?
6. Why is the double angle at the edge of the chisel better than a single angle ?
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7. Why is a smaller angle at the chisel edge better for soft wood than for hard wood ?
8. In gluing up stock, which is preferable, cold, warm, or hot glue, and why ?
9. In gluing the end grain, why is it better to put on two coats of glue, allowing the first to dry before applying the second ?
10. Would you use glue of the same consistency in gluing oak that you would in gluing maple ? Why ?
LESSON III
SAWBUCK
X 2\" X 2S"
4 pes. red oak 2" X 3I
2 pes. red oak i
I pc. red oak i" X 6" X 18"
I pc. round hickory 2" X 20''
Stock : 36" -
12 screws 2", No. 10, F. H. B.
Tools
Try-square Chisel Drawknife
Bevel square Brace and bit Spokeshave
Saw Screw driver Marking gauge
Carpenter's square Rule
Operations
1. Laying out.
2. Surfacing one side.
3. Planing one edge.
4. Laying out length, width, thickness.
5. Planing to thickness.
6. Laying out angles at ends of legs.
7. Sawing the angles at the ends of the legs.
8. Planing to width.
9. Laying the angles of the halved joint.
10. Sawing the halved joint.
11. ChiseHng the halved joint.
12. Fastening the legs together.
13. Laying out the holes for the crossbar.
SAWBUCK 21
14. Boring the holes for the crossbar.